Cross-National Analysis of Relative Age and Educational Inequalities: Findings from Spain, Mexico, and Uruguay

<jats:p xml:lang="en">Relative age, defined as the number of months between students in the same school year, acts as a factor of inequality that influences teaching and learning processes. Those who are relatively younger within each group often face lower levels of cognitive and socioemotional maturity, which leads to disadvantages in competence development and can widen other educational gaps. This study examines these effects among secondary school students in Spain, Mexico, and Uruguay, using data from PISA 2022. Logistic regression models were employed to estimate the likelihood of low performance in mathematics, reading, and science, controlling for gender, socioeconomic status, and exposure to bullying. The findings reveal that younger students are more likely to perform poorly: up to 35% more likely in mathematics in Mexico, 41% more likely in reading, and 33% more likely in science in Uruguay. Additionally, gender disparities are confirmed (female students tend to perform better in reading but worse in mathematics and science); socioeconomic status has positive effects, and bullying has a negative impact. Overall, these results emphasize the importance of including relative age as a key factor in education policies and pedagogical strategies to promote more equitable learning outcomes.</jats:p>