Learning spelling. An analysis of the development of spelling errors in Spanish-speaking schoolchildren

The objective of this study is to analyze the process of acquiring orthographic representations in Spanish-speaking schoolchildren, taking into account the orthographic characteristics of words and the errors detected during schooling. In a sample of 291 schoolchildren from a favorable socioeconomic-cultural context, students from second to sixth grade of primary education, who receive explicit instruction in spelling, were evaluated for their spelling abilities. Students with specific difficulties in reading, language, motor skills, or attention deficits were excluded. The spelling level was measured using a spelling discrimination speed test, and a dictation test was administered to evaluate spelling errors. For the analysis of results, words were classified according to their orthographic structure as consistent (where there is a direct relationship between sounds and the letters that represent them), context-dependent (where the appropriate letter can be determined based on the word's context), and arbitrary (where a sound can be represented by multiple spellings without a specific rule determining correctness). The results show that spelling is not fully acquired at the primary level. Consistent spelling words are acquired first, followed by context-dependent and inconsistent spelling words. In the case of consistent words, it was found that once the rules of phoneme-grapheme transformation have been learned, consistent spelling words do not present difficulties in their writing throughout the different school grades. The type of error in this type of words is distributed between omissions and substitutions in 2nd grade and later, in the following years, in the use of accents. In words with context-dependent spelling, the application of the rule would influence their correct writing. From third grade onwards, the level of accuracy increases in these words, which coincides with the special attention given to teaching spelling rules in this grade level. Substitutions of "c" for "q" and "n" for "m" are recorded in words containing these spellings. Omissions are recorded in the use of the letter "u" when accompanied by "g" and "q". Finally, inconsistent words become more mastered towards the end of schooling, specifically between 4th and 5th grade. When analyzing the type of error, the largest number is concentrated in spelling ambiguities, specifically in those words containing the letters "h," "y," and "ll". This could be due to the fact that, in the case of "h," it is the only grapheme that doesn't correspond to any phoneme, making its use highly arbitrary, in addition to its low frequency. This is also observed in words containing "y" and "ll". The correct use of accent marks (tilde) is also a subject to be taught, as it is one of the most distinctive aspects of writing and also one of the most difficult to link to oral language. The results show that this orthographic sign is the one that presents the highest number of errors and is not fully acquired by the end of primary education. These results are discussed within the framework of research conducted in Spanish-speaking contexts, where it is established that children make early use of phonology and then gradually form their orthographic lexicon, which begins to consolidate between fourth and fifth grade. The results have pedagogical and didactic implications for the teaching of spelling, considering both the developmental aspects and the formation of word representations. It is concluded that, given the particularities of the Spanish language, the need for explicit, progressive and systematic teaching of spelling is noted, emphasizing the importance of reading and writing activities that consider the meaning of words.